100 
THE QUANTUM [vn. 4 
“ Our ordinary electrodynamic conceptions are probably 
insufficient to form a basis for an explanation of atomic 
magnetism. This is hardly to be wondered at when we 
remember that they have not proved adequate to account for 
the phenomena of radiation which are connected with the 
intimate interaction between the electric and magnetic forces 
arising from the motion of the electrons. In whatever way 
these difficulties may be solved it seems simplest to assume that 
the occurrence of magnetism, such as we meet in the elements 
of the fourth period, results from a lack of symmetry in the 
internal structure of the atom, thus preventing the magnetic 
forces arising from the motion of the electrons from forming a 
system of closed lines of force running wholly within the atom. 
While it has been assumed that the ions of the elements in the 
previous periods, whether positively or negatively charged, con 
tain configurations of marked symmetrical character, we must, 
however, be prepared to encounter a definite lack of symmetry 
in the electronic configurations in ions of those elements within 
the fourth period which contain a group of electrons in 3-quanta 
orbits in the transition stage between symmetrical configurations 
of 8 and 18 electrons respectively. As pointed out by Kossel, 
the experimental results exhibit an extreme simplicity, the 
magnetic moment of the ions depending only on the number of 
electrons in the ion. Ferric ions, for example, exhibit the same 
atomic magnetism as manganous ions, while manganic ions exhibit 
the same atomic magnetism as chromous ions. It is in beautiful 
agreement with what we have assumed about the structure of the 
atoms of copper and zinc, that the magnetism disappears with 
these ions containing 28 electrons which, as I stated, must be 
assumed to contain a complete group of 3-quanta orbits. On 
the whole a consideration of the magnetic properties of the 
elements within the fourth period gives us a vivid impression 
of how a wound in the otherwise symmetrical inner structure 
is first developed and then healed as we pass from element to 
element. It is to be hoped that a further investigation of the 
magnetic properties will give us a clue to the way in which the 
group of electrons in 3-quanta orbits is developed step by step.” 
If we assume with Bohr that paramagnetism is independent 
of the nucleus of the atom but is governed entirely by the 
electronic orbits, we should expect the magnetic effect to be the 
same in all atoms with the same number of electrons even though 
the nuclear charges differ. This expectation is in accordance 
with the experimental results at present available. For example, 
the ferric ion, Fe +++ , and the manganous ion, Mn ++ , both having 
23 electrons, are similar in their magnetic properties. 
A scheme for the distribution of electrons among atomic