d are respon- 
che signaliza- 
the field in- 
ie. field com- 
dm does the 
raphical Sur- 
raphy work, 
adjustments 
o plotting. 
inct need for 
rveys similar 
ly performed 
1 accomplish- 
lifficulties to 
uwded as very 
t hamper the 
metric meth- 
] not call for 
at the profit 
umed in the 
| 
nning as well 
d in the same 
ions and pri- 
rt is made in 
order to en- 
for the high- 
al procedures 
lems. 
J 
cting the ter- 
s information 
special maps. 
. and the ter- 
tions the de- 
edish terrain, 
red, has been 
varying. The 
mmetric pro- 
te a step-by- 
vhich the de- 
ely increased 
vork can con- 
ernatives. 
Sweden have 
/, possibilities 
rer etc. which 
infinit in the 
s to be taken 
Consequently 
luring the last 
| resources in 
reas in North 
organizations 
and on order. The mapping has been combined 
with photo geological studies, soil and rock inves- 
tigations etc. It ought to be mentioned that, during 
the last four-year-period about 6,000 sq.km. of the 
so called North-Calotte has been mapped in large 
scales for a combined Finnish-Swedish-Norwegian 
project. 
Also other hydroelectric companies use photo- 
grammetry in a similar way for their planning and 
building. 
Highway design 
Since many years photogrammetric maps are used 
for highway decign but urtil a few years ago only 
as a substitute for terrestrial maps. About 1954 the 
highway engineers realized that an extensive use 
of photogrammetric methods represented the only 
possibility to keep even paths with the fast increas- 
ing demand on planning and designing of new 
roads, especially as the modern highway calls for 
reliable and complete terrain information for eco- 
nomy reasons. First one and later on several private 
civil engineering firms made good use of the photo- 
grammetric highway planning but not until the 
governmental highway authorities got a well equip- 
ped photogrammetric section of its own in 1957 the 
photogrammetric methods were fully accepted. The 
combination of photogrammetry with electronic 
data processing in the various steps of highway 
design was also found to be very profitable. In the 
same stage of development electronic distance 
measurements solved the problem of control surveys 
in these line-shaped mapping areas. 
Other phases of civil engineering 
Aerial as well as terrestrial photogrammetric sur- 
vey methods have, in great number of types, been 
used for various tasks, e.g. volume measurements 
in gravel pits, surface- and subsurface excavations, 
land slide investigations and various model tests. 
A far greater use of photogrammetry for such spe- 
cial problems would be feasible from technical and 
economical point of view but for the lack of suit- 
able instruments and skilled personnel. 
Forestry photogrammetry 
The rationalization and productivity drive in 
Swedish forest management during the last decade 
resulted in an increased demand for forest maps 
quantitatively and qualitatively. Within the Com- 
mittee of Forest Photogrammetry a comprehensive 
development work has been accomplished as well 
as a lot of information and education activities. 
Several big forest companies have played their part 
in this development. 
Rather simple photomaps—mosaics or so called 
single-image maps—with inked property bound- 
eries and growth-limits, truck-roads etc. represent 
today the normal planning maps for a rationalized 
Swedish forest management. Photo interpretation 
is a constituent part of the planning of lumbering, 
lumber-transportation and forest road building. In- 
ventory of the growing forest as well as planning 
of improvements are also normally based on photos. 
Photogrammetry for other purposes 
Aerial and terrestrial photogrammetric measure- 
ments as well as photo interpretation are used for 
many technical, scientific and other purposes which 
cannot be placed under the headings above but 
space does not allow their detailed presentation. As 
examples may only be mentioned X-ray-photo- 
grammetric measurements in living things, motion 
investigations, measurements of retardations etc. in 
car collisions with investigation of the behaviour of 
the safety belts, detailed plotting of archeological 
finds and architectural monuments, erosion-investi- 
gations etc. As mentioned above the further applica- 
tion of photogrammetric technics for such special 
purposes is primarily hampered by lack of person- 
nel and instruments. 
Photogrammetric education and training 
A lack of photogrammetrists has been mentioned 
above several times. This bears upon trained and 
skilled photogrammetrists. On the other hand the 
general information on photogrammetric methods 
and their use has been and is very wide. Short 
courses are compulsory for all the students at the 
departments for civil engineering and surveying at 
the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm as 
well as for the students at the Institute of Forestry 
and the Institute of Agriculture at Uppsala. In the 
curriculae of the training course for survey-tech- 
nicians of the Land Survey Board, photogrammetry 
is included and is taught in quite a number of hours. 
Occasional photogrammetric courses for people 
of various professions have been arranged in a 
rather great number during the last four-year peri- 
od, especially may be mentioned courses-in X-ray- 
photogrammetry for dentists. 
At the Royal Institute of Technology a higher 
course in photogrammetry is offered to the survey 
students and there are also arrangements for ad- 
vanced studies and research training. 
The stereo operators are on the other hand most- 
ly trained in the ordinare day-to-day routine work 
but a few comprehensive courses for stereo opera- 
tors have been arranged with a very good result. 
The organization of a permanent governmental 
training activity for survey technicians and stereo 
SWEDEN 5