International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol XXXV, Part B7. Istanbul 2004 
  
2.4.1.3 Rectification using Rubber Sheeting Method: To 
perform the triangle-based rectification, it is necessary to 
triangulate the control points into a mesh of triangles. Delaunay 
triangulation is most widely used and is adopted because of the 
smaller angle variations of the resulting triangles. This triangle 
based method is appealing because it breaks the entire region 
into smaller subsets. If the geometric problem of the entire 
region is very complicated, the geometry of each subset can be 
much simpler and modeled through simple transformation. For 
each triangle, the polynomials can be used as the general 
transformation form between source and destination systems 
(Erdas Imagine field guide). 
The most popular method to register images (image to image, 
image to map), is rubber sheeting. Here, a low order 2D 
polynomial is fitted through data points and control points in 
order to transform an image to another image or to a map. The 
polynomial coefficients are then used to transform noncontrol 
points. The simplest transformation in this scheme is an affine 
transformation (Schenk, T. et a/, 2003). 
  
  
  
  
  
  
X 1.1554 meters 
Y 1.0977 meters 
Total 1.5937 meters 
  
Table 3. Check Point Error 
The final step of Rubber Sheeting method was performed by 
measuring 94 control and 24 check points with 1,6 m. accuracy 
(Table 3.). Best results were obtained by using Rubber Sheeting 
method as shown in Table 4. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
: Amount of change 
Period ro 
Increase(hectares) Decrease(hectares) 
1963-1998 633.126 66.000 
1998-2000 11.535 153.079 
1963-2000 488.950 63.367 
  
  
  
  
  
  
Affine Projective Rubber Sheeting 
RMS Errors ~130 m. 100-250 m. 1.6 m. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
Table 4. The error comparison of three methods 
2.5 Detecting the temporal coast line changes of the study 
area 
- Corona 
SPOT-4 (pan) 
IRS1-D (pan) 
  
Figure 6. Coast lines of the study area at acquisition dates of 
images; Corona(1963), SPOT-4(1998) and IRS-1D(2000) 
The coast line was manually digitized on georeferenced 
Corona, SPOT-4 PAN and IRS-1D PAN images. Coast line 
change detection amount is calculated by subtracting 2000 
dated data set from 1963 dated data set, 1998 dated data set 
from 1963 dated data set and 2000 dated data set from 1998 
dated data set. Noteworthy changes were observed. 
The coastal zone differences between the data sets are shown at 
the table below. 
440 
Table 5. The coastal zone differences between the data sets 
3. CONCLUSION 
Detection of temporal changes especially at metropolis cities 
such as Istanbul provides more reliable estimates for future of 
the city. Corona photographs acquired on 1963, because of their 
high spatial resolution, present us very rich information about 
the study area. These photos have property of documentation of 
history, therefore natural and human made changes can be 
detected with the aid of these photos. 
The critical point of the study was georeferencing stage of the 
scanned Corona photographs. The unknown parameters of the 
camera and its interior orientation elements, made us put into 
practice different methods. Affine and projective transformation 
methods gave unacceptable errors. The erroneous results of 
affine transformation emanate from the panoramic structure of 
Corona. On the other hand, the erroneous results of Projective 
transformation emanate from, fiducial marks does not exist on 
Corona film, consequently principal point of the photo could 
not be designated with enough accuracy. The probable error 
(even 1 pixel) could be made at designation of the principal 
point of the photographs changes the projection geometry 
completely. This problem was eliminated with the use of 
Rubber sheeting method, independent from central projection 
geometry, using only a part of the film that includes study area. 
Corona image was registered to IRS-1D PAN image with 1.6 m. 
RMS error. Registered Corona, SPOT-4 PAN and IRS-1D PAN 
images were compared and temporal changes at coastal zone 
was determined. 
It’s thought that Corona panoramic photographs can be used to 
detect especially the temporal changes of land use. Thus, the 
information of the texture of the cities, when it was not 
corrupted, could be obtained. This information can be used in 
GIS studies and planning applications which have realistic 
criterion. Then, more concrete precautions could be taken by 
local authorities to protect the texture of the city. The most 
important advantage that Corona photographs have is providing 
synoptic view more quickly and more economically. 
Acknowledgements 
The authors wishes to thank NIK System Department of NIK 
Ing. Tic.Ltd.Sti. and i.S.K.I. (Istanbul Water and Sewerage 
Administration) supplying the satellite images, and Steve 
Wadey for revising the paper. 
References from Books: 
Lillesand, T. M, Kiefer, R. W., 2000. Remote Sensing and 
Image Interpretation. 4% Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 
103-375. 
References from Other Literature: 
Donaghue, Daniel N. M., 2001, Multispectral Remote Sensing 
for Archaeology. In Remote sensing in archaeology, edited by 
Inter 
  
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