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HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY 
Chapter 6: ANALYTICAL METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS 
Sanjib K. Ghosh 
Professor of Photogrammetry 
Laval University, Canada 
Commission VI 
Abstract: The paper constitutes Chap 6 (analytical 
methods and instruments - concepts and procedures) 
of the book "History of Photogrammetry" to be pub- 
lished by the ISPRS. Starting with definitions, 
the fundamentals and precursors, all pre- and post 
World War II developments are elaborated. This is 
followed by a broad discussion on more recent  ad- 
vancements, conventional and unconventional. In- 
strumental developments are discussed with regard 
to acquisition, processing and presentation of the 
data. Selected references are appended. 
Key words: History, Analytical Photogrammetry, 
Concepts, Procedures, Instruments. 
6.1 INTRODUCTION 
In photogrammetry the word "Analytical" has been 
used synonymously with "computational", where the 
solutions are obtained by mathematical methods as 
against "Analog", where solutions are obtained by 
analogy or similitude developed through optical- 
mechanical procedures. The backbone of analytical 
methods consists of various mathematical and 
procedural concepts to represent relations between 
points in the object, their corresponding images 
and operational procedures to solve specific 
problems. 
Analytical photogrammetric procedures may be 
considered along three operational stages, each 
involving specific instruments (Fig. 6.1), viz., 
those used for acquisition of image data 
(mensural), those used for data-processing and 
analyses (computational) and those used for display 
or presentation of the results. 
In view of the above, we would study the historical 
developments firstly with regard to the concepts 
and next with regard to the instruments and their 
potentials for the future. 
A mathematical model, in expressing the relevant 
concept, provides insight into the underlying chain 
of events. There is no mystery about the way in 
which this insight is achieved. The mathematical 
models have no scientific value unless they have 
been validated adequately through experience and 
research. Scientific validation is an 
openended process. As a mathematical model is 
successfully tested and used, it becomes es- 
tablished. Otherwise it stands to be changed, 
modified or simply dropped. We have witnessed this 
through the historical development of analytical 
photogrammetry. 
Furthermore, photogrammetry being an applied 
science, it is the content and not the form of the 
mathematical statement (language) that matters 
most. Thus we have noticed that mathematical and 
operational concepts have been adapted to 
circumstances without really changing the basic 
contents. The following sections would highlight 
the conceptual developments without going into 
personal details. 
6.2 MATHEMATICAL AND PROCEDURAL CONCEPTS 
6.2.1 Fundamentals and Precursors 
Development of mathematics as a discipline of logic 
did not exist before about 1000 B.C. The Greek 
philosopher Aristotle (~350 B.C.) referred to the 
process of optical projection of images. Leonardo 
da Vinci explored the disciplines of optics, 
geometry and mechanics. In 1492 he demonstrated 
the principles of optical perspectivity (MacLeish 
1977), which provides the foundation of 
photogrammetry even today. Albrecht Dürer (1471- 
1528) in 1525 constructed samples of mechanical 
devices to make true perspective drawings of nature 
and studio scenes as well as for producing 
stereoscopic drawings (ASPRS 1980). The German 
astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1600 gave a precise 
definition of stereoscopy. Aughtread of England in 
1574 developed the first slide rule and soon 
thereafter John Napier (1550-1617) published tables 
of logarithms and Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) 
established the concept of metrology and gave the 
world a desk calculator. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) 
and Gottfried von Leibnitz (1646-1716) firmly 
established the concepts of differential and 
integral calculus. Concepts of inverse central 
perspective and space resection of conjugate images 
were first discussed by J. Henry Lambert (1728- 
1777) in his book "Freie Perspective" in 1759. 
Wheatstone of England presented in 1838 the 
stereoscope, one most important tool used in 
photogrammetry. The practice of photogrammetry 
could be started only after Arago and Niepce 
announced a "Heliographic Process", based on which 
Louis J.M. Daguerre (1789-1851) presented to the 
French Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1837 the 
photographs which he called "daguerrotypes". The 
coining of the term "photogrammetry" in 1855 by 
Kersten with its introduction by Meydenbauer in 
1867 to international literature, the first German 
textbook on photogrammetry by Koppe (1889) and Aime 
Laussedat’s classic work on French photogrammetry 
(1898) are some of the milestones of analytical 
photogrammetry recorded in history (ISPRS 1980). 
Hauck (1883) established the relationship between 
projective geometry and photogrammetry. This 
should be considered to be the most fundamental 
geometric concept and the basis of most classic 
analytical photogrammetric developments. 
Ernst Abbé, the cofounder of the German Zeiss Works 
in 1871 started intense studies and tests for 
optical elements on the basis of rigorous 
mathematical analyses.  F. Stolze discovered the 
principle of the floating mark in 1892 while Carl 
Pulfrich also of the Zeiss group developed a prac- 
ticable method of measuring and deriving spatial 
dimensions from stereo-photographic images with 
floating marks. He presented in 1901 the Zeiss- 
Pulfrich Stereocomparator by supplementing Eduard 
von Orel's (1877-1941) first prototype 
Stereoautograph at the 73° Conference of Natural 
Scientists and Physicians held at Hamburg. 
Separately, a similar stereocomparator was invented 
in 1901 by Henry G. Fourcade (1865-1948) of South 
Africa. He presented this at the Philosophical 
Society of Cape Town. 
Sebastian Finsterwalder (1862-1951) in a series of 
publications during 1899 to 1937 established a very 
strong foundation for analytical photogrammetry. 
In these he brought about the geometric relations 
which govern resection and intersection as well as 
relative and absolute orientations. He predicted 
the future possibility of nadir point triangulation