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ruminants, and rodents in their geographical distribution. We 
witnessed numbers of facts of mutual support, especially during the 
migrations of birds and ruminants. But even in die Amur and 
Usuri regions, where animal life swarms in abundance, facts of real 
competition and struggle between higher animals of the same 
species came very seldom under our notice, though we eagerly 
searched for them. The same impression appears in the works of 
most Russian zoologists, and it probably explains why Kessler’s ideas 
were so welcomed by the Russian Darwinists, whilst like ideas are 
not in vogue amidst the followers of Darwin in Western Europe.”— 
(.Nineteenth Century, vol. xxviii., pp. 341-2.) 
The same writer warns us that we may sometimes be 
deluded by appearances as to the relative amount of 
competition within the limits of the same species, because 
the conditions in which animals are found in places thickly 
populated by men is no guide to their natural mode of 
life, when left to themselves. 
“ It is worthy of note that there are species living a quite isolated 
life in densely-inhabited regions, while the same species, or their 
nearest congeners, are gregarious in uninhabited countries. Wolves, 
foxes, and several birds of prey may be quoted as instances in 
point.”—(Nineteenth Century, vol. xxviii., p. 348.) 
“The wolf is said to be unsociable, yet he often hunts in packs ; 
he has a cry which brings his brethren to join him in attacking large 
and powerful animals ; and full-grown wolves, travelling together, go 
in single file, like Indians on the war-path, having been trained to 
this very practice when young by their mothers.”—{Blackwood, 
vol. cliii., p. 263.) 
No doubt there are cases in which it would seem that 
the individuals of the same species do compete with one 
another. But it should be borne in mind that among 
animals as well as among men there are very marked 
differences of disposition. 
“Nature is variety itself, offering all possible varieties of characters, 
from the basest to the highest. Here you have the dominative 
swans ; there the extremely sociable kittiwake gulls, among whom 
quarrels are rare and short ; the prepossessing Polar guillemots, 
which continually caress each other; the egoist she-goose, who