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10. Summary 
In non-topographic applications of photogrammetry there is a lack of met 
ric cameras suitable for the various types of photography. It is often very neces 
sary to design new cameras or to convert standard cameras. The calibration 
problem must then be solved, and can be solved by the method described in 
this thesis. 
Many definitions of interior orientation exist, each dependent on the num 
ber of parameters used. The classic definition using only principal point and 
camera constant is insufficient in most cases. It is necessary to determine regu 
lar errors due to radial distortion, film shrinkage and tangential distortion by 
including parameters for these quantities in the mathematical model. The six 
usual parameters for the exterior orientation are also included and solved for 
in a common least squares adjustment. The remaining irregular errors are the 
basis for the estimation of accuracy of interior orientation and image co-ordi 
nates. This can be called a statistical definition of interior orientation. 
The common solution for all parameters requires a three-dimensional test 
object with accurately determined co-ordinates of targets. Some of the test 
objects that have been used, are described in the examples. Pictures of such test 
objects are exposed under operational conditions and measured in a compa 
rator and the co-ordinates recorded on punched tape. Calculation is done on 
electronic computers. 
The assumptions for, and the properties of, the method of least squares ad 
justments are reproduced and related to the main sources of error in photo- 
grammetric photography. In addition to these theoretical considerations some 
tests based on the residuals are performed in order to see whether the asump- 
tions are fulfilled or not. It can be stated that the residuals are normally dis 
tributed, but not independent. This so-called physical correlation is discussed 
on theoretical and empirical bases. Suggestions are made to take it into account. 
This calibration technique has been applied to several types of equipment 
for photography and projection e.g. stereo cameras, microscopes, Balplex plot 
ters, roentgen image intensifies etc. In the thesis examples are given for 
1) a Pentax Takumar calibrated by means of a large steel ’’cage” contai 
ning 177 accurately determined targets, 
2) a convergent close-up camera for medical purposes calibrated by means 
of an artificial space grid,