the adequateness of current equipment for trai- 
ning in photogrammetry at various levels. 
Dr. Jerie spoke on experiences gained in training 
at the operator level at the International Institute 
for Aerial Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC), 
Enschede, Netherlands, presenting instruments 
and educational routines. 
Mr. Bormann presented Wild apparatuses adequate 
for training purposes, Wild being particularly 
interested in this field. Wild prepares also special 
materials used in training given in Switzerland 
by private companies and by the Swiss School 
for Photogrammetric Operators in St. Gallen. 
The discussion was continued by Messrs. P. 
Roos (Netherlands), R. C. Barrett (U.K.), R. Scholl 
(Switzerland), H. Zorn (Netherlands), Dr. D. Gordon 
(New Zealand), Dr. B. Macarovic (Netherlands) and 
by Mr. Danko, Mr. Klaver and Dr. Inghilleri 
who spoke about the role of double optical sys- 
tems in training, about the problem of training 
large numbers of people, about the costs of 
the instruments involved, and about training at 
upper levels. 
The chairman concluded that if we have spe- 
cialists training photogrammetrists at the various 
levels maybe there is a need for training 
equipment. There are several levels of training 
and quite obviously different types and classes 
of equipment are needed. 
The second question, concerning the eventual 
standardization of photogrammetric equipment, 
was shared by Dr. Inghilleri (users) and Dr. Meier 
(builders). 
The representative of the users, Dr. Inghilleri, 
spoke about the differences between the con- 
struction of a plant for which mutually compatible 
parts are needed and the construction of a 
machine in which the greater number of parts 
are built by a single company, which buys only 
a few common parts of the machine outside. He 
stressed that photogrammetric apparatuses fall 
into the latter group, and that photogrammetric 
companies are not interested in promoting the 
standardization of parts of instruments. Never- 
theless, the coordinatograph, the coordinate 
recorder and, perhaps, the orthophoto instru- 
ments can be considered as peripherals suitable 
to be standardized. 
The representative of the builders, Dr. Meier, 
first defined the word standardization to be 
"finding of an economic and optimal solution 
of the repeating problems". He also observed 
that standardization is not an academic problem, 
but an economic one. Furthermore, standardi- 
zation generates clarity both in terminology and 
in operations. Standardization is possible at 
different levels, and for each level it is necessary 
to establish its own convenience. He also pointed 
out that standardization must be done very fast, 
or it will be a very expensive procedure. 
The audience joined in the discussion. Dr. Jerie 
observed that the areas of standardization should 
be clearly defined. Mr. Zorn stated that also 
small but important things, such as voltages, 
pins, etc., should be standardized. Mr. Grabmaier 
(Netherlands) pointed out the importance of 
standardization of the coordinate systems in- 
cluding the positive sense of the rotational 
elements. This seems important with respect 
to numerical orientation procedures and inde- 
94 
pendent model triangulation. Mr. Danko observed 
that standardization is a fine thing as far as it 
does not hinder progress in the development 
and innovation of new instrumentation. 
Panelists Dr. Karara (users) and Mr. Danko 
(builders) opened the discussion on the third 
question, on the emphasis to be given to 
developing equipment for non-conventional app- 
lications. 
Dr. Karara said that, instead of non-conventional 
photogrammetry, one should speak of short-range 
photogrammetry. He discussed the use of metric 
and non-metric cameras, and pointed out that 
comparators and analytical plotters at low cost 
and of small format should be available for the 
use of non-metric cameras. Mr. Danko agreed 
with Dr. Karara, and stressed that non-conven- 
tional photogrammetry opens a new market, 
since simple instruments at low cost are 
required for some of the uses that he had 
listed. 
Photogrammetrists sitting in the audience in- 
tervened in the discussion: Dr. D. Hobbie 
(F.R.G.) spoke about the stereocord, Mr. Mott 
stated that close-range instruments are becoming 
more and more complex, whereas most of the 
close-range work is still limited to relatively 
small projects, whereafter Mr. Busch asked 
about the accuracy required. In answer to 
this, Dr. Karara said 10—15 microns. Dr. Ing- 
hilleri pointed out other fields of non-con- 
ventional photogrammetry, x-rays, panoramic 
cameras, etc. Dr. R. E. Herron (U.S.A.) stressed 
that the cost of the apparatuses was not to be 
the sole criteria. Dr. L. Stoch (Israel) observed 
that the problems arising concern cameras, not 
plotting instruments. Dr. Meier stated that the 
requirements in the field of non-conventional 
photogrammetry are different and cannot, there- 
fore, be satisfied at low cost. Finally Mr. Bormann 
made a remark to the effect that it is nonsensical 
to use a "half-a-million" analytical plotter for the 
exploitation of photographs taken with a "ten- 
dollar" camera. Dr. Karara closed with: "Better 
a ten-dollar camera than nothing." 
After a short break the session was continued 
with a discussion of the remaining three of the 
foreseen six questions. 
Panelists Mr. Mott (users) and Mr. Busch 
(builders) started this latter session with a 
discussion on equipment capable of correcting 
for model deformation. 
Mr. Mott observed that, after the earth curvature 
and refraction corrections, no more corrections 
are needed for plotting, because the cameras 
of today are very good. Mr. Busch did not agree 
with him, because, according to his opinion, 
also the effects of lens distortion, film shrinkage 
and other errors must be corrected. These 
corrections are easy to make with analytical 
instruments, but difficult with analogue ones. 
In addition to the panelists photogrammetrists 
in the audience participated in the discussion: 
Dr. Inghilleri said that many errors arise in the 
process of taking photographs even with a very 
good camera. He pointed out also that model 
deformations can be corrected in computer- 
assisted plotters. Mr. Zorn stressed that a large 
model deformation has causes that must be 
analyzed, and that the practice of correcting 
m