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some of whom continued their contributions well 
into the 1970s. Arthur J. Brandenberger and 
W.K. Bachmann, two outstanding ones of the group 
made numerous contributions in various orientation 
concepts. Hugo Kasper, also of Zurich, Switzerland 
contributed considerably to the general concepts 
during the 1940s and later. 
Earl Church (1890-1956) published a series of 19 
articles on computational photogrammetry in the 
1930s after the first American Institute of 
Photogrammetry was established in 1929 under his 
direction at Syracuse University. The first six 
articles were bound in a book (Church 1934). 
Church started a trend in which numerous scientists 
made significant contributions in the USA for 
solving problems of space resection, orientation, 
intersection, etc. One of the approaches developed 
by Church, on the determination of the camera 
station (perspective center) coordinates by 
utilizing an approximate position and an iterative 
approach, has in effect remained virtually 
unchanged to this day. He, however, separated the 
solution for the orientation angles from the camera 
station coordinates. He also tackled another 
problem which he called "Determination of scale 
data" i.e. to compute the dimensions of objects 
from the photographs without reference to their 
absolute positions in space. He also turned his 
attention to the calculations of rectifier 
settings. He later formalized his procedures by 
codifying his derivations in the direction cosine 
notations (Church 1948). The approaches of Church 
were, however, explicit i.e., with no consideration 
of redundant observations or data. Also, he never 
applied any error analysis to his solutions. 
6.2.3 Post World War II Developments 
World War II had a major effect on developments in 
all countries. Nonetheless, within each European 
country postwar efforts were somewhat continuation 
of previous developments. Destruction of manu- 
facturing and service facilities on the European 
continent had brought the industry to a virtual 
standstill. However, during the postwar period the 
centers of evolution were greatly extended to the 
North American continent where a tremendous 
relatively high need in mapping and associated 
control network existed with untapped scientific 
and industrial resources and capital to support the 
growth. Real advancements were made with regard to 
analytical methods only after World War II, al- 
though it is recorded (ISP Archives, 1948 and 1952 
Congresses) that numerous "experts" would define 
photogrammetry as the "art of avoiding 
calculations". Many of them felt that analog 
plotting machines had achieved sufficient accuracy 
with regard to detail plotting and contouring. 
They considered that the only area where further 
developments were required was aerotriangulation, 
in which supplementary computational work was 
always necessary. In this regard, governmental and 
commercial interests with academic collaboration 
were successful in establishing steady growths in 
various aspects in numerous countries. Although 
these were  peace-time efforts, international 
competitions, national priorities (in planning and 
developments) and the challenge of outer space 
provided the stimuli while technological 
advancements continued to provide the necessary 
support. 
Furthermore, at the beginning of this period, the 
basic principles of statistics were no novelty to 
the photogrammetrist. The theory of errors and the 
method of least squares had served him well. 
313 
However, at this stage more and more people 
started to realize that the modern statistical 
principles would show how to improve the 
reliability of various minor operations, analogic 
or analytic. They even started to realize as to 
how to plan a job to obtain the maximum amount of 
information from the number of observations which 
one can afford to make (due to economic and time 
considerations) and how to determine the 
reliability of inference from them. 
The units to measure distances remained an 
unresolved | entity to the  photogrammetrists. 
Centuries ago, a foot was defined as the length of 
36 barley grains strung end to end and the yard was 
the distance from the tip of King Edgar's nose to 
the end of his outstretched hand. Since then we 
have come a long way. However a confusion did 
exist internationally, particularly between the two 
major systems: CGS (Centimeter-Gram-Second) and FPS 
(Foot-Pound-Second). The CGS system with two 
variations devised by European Scientists in the 
1800s was unified in the early 20* century into the 
MKS (Meter-Kilogram-Second) system. Then in 1954, 
at the X General Conference of Weights and Measures 
held at Sévres, France the Ampere (A) being chosen 
as the fourth base unit, this system was referred 
to as the MKSA system. Finally in 1960 at the XI 
General Conference of Weights and Measures, the 
system of units proposed in 1954 was officially 
entitled "Systéme International d'Unités" with its 
abbreviation being SI. This being a coherent 
system, it is now used by over 80 per cent of the 
people of the world. Although ISPRS encourages 
this system, its full official implementation 
encounters difficulties. 
As with the units (meter, foot, etc.), there 
existed a confusing multitude of systems of 
coordinates. After numerous deliberations finally 
an International System of Coordinates was accepted 
in 1956 (ISP Archives, 1956 and 1960 Congresses). 
Its universal implementation, however, remains yet 
to be fulfilled. 
In view of computational-analytical approaches, the 
photogrammetrist started to understand in the early 
1950s the necessity and importance of items like 
"random sampling", "test of hypotheses" or "degrees 
of freedom" at even minor stages of operations 
involving also such effects as film shrinkage, lens 
distortion or temperature variation. Questions re- 
lated to consideration of for example "weight" and 
"correlation", "observation equations" against 
"condition equations" or "observations" against 
"quasi-observations" started to be raised in the 
computational approaches. 
Practically all of such developments are recorded 
in numerous publications around the world. Thus, 
before drawing our attention here to the specific 
developments, it would be appropriate to identify 
the significant publications or information sources 
in this regard. 
6.2.3.1 Publications 
A. Journals. The following journals are special 
in their presentation of analytical concepts and 
methods in the English language: 
1. Photogrammetria: Currently, ISPRS Journal of 
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing; four issues 
per year. 
2. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing: 
Journal of the ASPRS; twelve issues per year.