14.
15.
16.
should be developed for the
changes needed in order to deal
to digital
into account
Clear plans
institutional
with the transition from analogue
operations. Aspects to be taken
in draving up these plans include:
- That the implementation of new technology
takes some time to be fully effective and
therefore organisations have to count on
having a mixture of technology in this
interim period.
- That the introduction of digital technology
is a complex operation and it can affect
NMA’s in the way they relate to clients
(other government organisations and the
general public, who in this digital field,
also have to be familiar with the techno-
logy); in the way conventional mapping units
relate to each other; in the production
lines and working methods; etc.
These implications have to be studied
carefully so that the NMA can adapt its
organisational structure and can train its
staff to cope with the new situation.
- That special attention needs to be paid to
the social changes within the organisation,
when going digital. Good communication is
essential, since the relevance of intro-
ducing the new technology has to be ex-
plained in order to receive the necessary
support at all levels. Furthermore, when the
necessary changes are introduced, this
should be done in small simple steps so that
staff are not lost along the way.
- No real problems were envisaged in the
conversion from an analogue to a digital
data base at medium scales, since most
countries have a complete coverage of
1:50,000 maps. Problems were, however,
foreseen in the conversion of the old
records of large scale and cadastral data
bases into a digital data base.
On the question of equipment, it was suggested
that organisations adopt a more "active atti-
tude" towards manufacturers. Examples given
were in setting up stricter equipment specifi-
cations (equipment to withstand adverse en-
vironmental conditions and have low mainte-
nance costs); that back-up support from
manufacturers be guaranteed; that an upward
compatibility of systems and components be
guaranteed; etc.
Furthermore, there is a requirement for re-
presentative standard data sets and effective
methodologies for the evaluation of digital
systems.
CHALLENGES RELATING TO SOCIAL ISSUES
The social demands for up-to-date maps and
other information products are rising relent-
lessly under the pressure of urbanisation, the
needs of resource exploitation and management,
the development of agriculture, the protection
of a liveable environment and the need for
security and political stability. Coupled to
this is the increasing complexity that can be
observed in the planning and decision making
process and its greater decentralisation (more
and more decisions taken at the level where
the development takes place), leading to a re-
quirement for more, faster, more current and
more-to-the-point information on the one hand,
and to more complex types of information
(interrelations between information cate-
gories, consequences of actions) on the other.
The challenge facing NMA’s is now how to cope
342
17.
18.
19.
20.
with these rising and changing demands.
The related social issue of meeting user's
data quality requirements was recognised as
being quite complex. It involves both data
accuracy and data completeness, with far from
simple models since accuracy relates to the
resultant accuracy of the input errors (ground
control, aerial photography and aerial trian-
gulation), the collection errors (orientation,
measurement and identification) and the sto-
rage and processing errors (rounding off;
vector to raster conversion; overlay errors;
etc.) whilst completeness relates to the
generalisation percentage of the content; the
percentage of elements required actually
picked up; the correctness of the classifi-
cation and the decay rate of the data items.
Furthermore, in terms of its cost effective-
ness, this does not concern the data quality
itself, but relates rather to the extent to
which this data quality meets user needs.
Essentially, the client establishes the qual-
ity and timeliness as a function of what he is
prepared to pay.
It is thus necessary to identify the users and
then carefully establish what their realistic
information requirements are, depending on how
utilising the data. This latter
process is therefore much easier in single
purpose products such as cadastral plans,
hydrographic charts, etc. than in multi-
purpose topo maps or data bases, with widely
varying requirements, depending on user
purpose and field of application.
they are
NMA's are also sometimes guilty of not
identifying the realistic information needs of
users, with the result that the data and
information gaps, due to missing or inadequate
information, and the data and information
overlaps, due to irrelevant information,
arise. In view of the fact that both situ-
ations affect the cost effectiveness of the
mapping programme, it is important to avoid
these by becoming more active in identifying
users information needs and going out and
seeing what users are actually doing. Hereby
it is also important to concentrate on the
information needs themselves, rather than to
look to the products which might satisfy these
needs.
CHALLENGES RELATING TO ECONOMIC ISSUES
Lack of funds to finance the implementation of
digital technology was seen to be the major
constraint in many countries. This implies
that long term investment plans have to be
drawn up and the funding bodies, whether the
government or foreign aid agencies, have to be
convinced of the long term benefits which vill
accrue from their investments.
On the question of revenue generation, it was
pointed out that NMA’s traditionally have
little experience in marketing their products,
simply because there has been no incentive to
do so, when the nominal charges made for maps
do not flow back to the agency but disappear
in a central treasury.
With the budget restrictions facing NMA’s
world wide, the following recommendations were
put forward to improve the situation:
- If the NMA cannot change the situation of
charges made flowing to the central
