202 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. 
shat they shall themselves contribute to the advancement of human knowl- 
adge by observation and research. The proficiency of students in Swedish 
universities is, as elsewhere, ascertained by examinations. These are of a 
twofold character, as I shall endeavor to explain. 
The universities of Europe generally have been placed under supervision 
by the state. The state requires from its officials, and from private citi- 
zens proposing to enter certain important vocations—that of medicine, for 
Instance—that they give evidence of possessing the knowledge and skill 
necessary to their special calling. Now, in some cases the university 
seaching and the ordinary university examinations have been considered 
as serving this additional public end. In other cases the universities have 
had to undertake the organization of courses of instruction required by the 
state for the purpose just mentioned, and the testing of proficiency therein 
by special examinations—civic or state examinations, as they may be called. 
This part of university work naturally has a less scientific character ; it 
is more elementary, and the object of the examinations is to ascertain 
that the students have mastered certain fixed pense of knowledge, rather 
than to ascertain the results of deep scientific study. The practical impor- 
lance of this part of the universities’ work may sometimes offer tempta- 
lions to subordinate their strictly scientific work, and to make the higher 
examinations—the university examinations proper—by technicalities or 
regulation, too much like the civic or state examinations. It seems to me, 
however, that the present regulations and arrangements of the Swedish 
aniversities conspire in a very happy way to avoid this danger, as I hope 
50 show you. 
The faculties of theology and of law have two kinds of examinations : 
scientific examinations and civic examinations. Most of the students of 
sheology and of law pass the civic examinations only, and thus become 
entitled to enter the service of the state as judges or other officials, or that 
of the state church as ecclesiastics. Some, however, of the law and theo- 
logical students take the university examinations proper, success in which, 
.n some cases, gives them a preference in the matter of appointments over 
‘hose of their colleagues who have been content to take the civic examina- 
sions only. i 
The department of medicine offers examinations of the higher grade 
only. As may be inferred from this, the studies of the Swedish medical 
students are very thorough. Generally it takes them eight to ten years of 
nard work after matriculation to complete their university studies. There 
are two examinations in the faculty of medicine ; the first is merely pre- 
paratory to the second. 
The fourth of the faculties or departments is that of philosophy. Like 
she faculty of medicine, this faculty has no civic examinations. Neglect- 
ing some minor preparatory examinations that are passed by students 
wishing to enter the other departments, there are two examinations in the