TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 547 
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(?) The technical schools, from kindergarten to the technical school of 
the university or the great independent professional school, are coming to 
have more definite curricula, to adapt themselves more perfectly, on the 
one hand, to the needs of the people ; on the other, to the great educational 
system of which they are to form a part. The higher schools are develop- 
ing into professional schools; the intermediate grades into trade and 
mixed schools; the lower into manual-training and primary schools, with 
the manual-training element descending, in the form of the kindergarten 
system, into the primary schools. Whether, ultimately, the representa- 
sive school will have a purely technical or a mixed curriculum is, of 
sourse, as yet indeterminable ; but the forces of economical change are 
working strongly in the direction of steady rise, with tendency toward 
toncentration and specialization, from kindergarten to professional school. 
Yet, as President Walker has suggested : ‘“ Possibly some ultimate form 
for institutions of the higher learning may yet be developed which shall 
smbody much of both the modern school of technology and of the old- 
‘ashioned college, with, perhaps, something taken from neither, but 
originating in the larger, fuller, riper life of a happier and richer future.” 
For the present, the independent schools will probably continue to offer a 
curriculum containing extra-professional studies. The universities will 
probably mere and more restrict their professional schools to professional 
work, leaving the student the privilege of either taking his educational 
sourse in advance, or as contemporary elective work in other departments. * 
(3) The universities are establishing, continually, more and. more defi- 
aitely separated schools of culture and of the applied sciences and of the 
professions ; each having its strictly defined place, purpose, and curricu- 
lum, its exactly prescribed conditions of admission to its courses, and 
smploying a staff of specialists to give the instruction which it offers as 
* It is a curious fact that while the whole tendency, in the United States and in other countries, is 
obviously toward the organization of a system of state-supported schools, with a state university at the 
head, and toward a constantly more and more completely hierarchic form, there has arisen in France, at 
the very fountain-head of this movement, a sentiment favoring the destruction of the whole sy=tem, the 
breaking up of the state organization and replacement by local and limited organizations. The system 
now in operation, as established in 1808, by the first Napoleon, constitutes the Minister of Public Instruc- 
ion the head of the national organization. He provides for the inspection of the schools and colleges, 
the conferring of degrees, on recommendation by the proper authorities, and the appointment of profes- 
tors and teachers, and thus controls the whole educational machinery of France. The country is divided 
nto academic districts, each having its special faculty, with a rector at its head, who is assisted by a corps 
of inspectors ; the scheme being in some respects like that of the University of the State of New York, 
vut endowed with larger scope of operation and greater powers. In each district an academic council 
nas charge of matters of discipline ; a faculty of letters attends to the curriculum in its field, and another 
of science takes charge of that branch. Faculties of law, medicine, theology supervise the work of the 
professional schools in each of those departments. Of late, Jules Simon, Jules Ferry, Taine, and others 
nave proposed the reconstruction of the system in such manner as to produce a considerable number of 
focal systems, corresponding somewhat to our own separate State systems, each with its own local uni- 
versity and underlying secondary and primary schools ; breaking up the University of France, as the 
whole is now called, into a collection of independent but very similar smaller provincial universities. 
Jne reason urged for this change is that the Academy of Paris secures too large a proportion of sta- 
dents ; another is that greater independence is thought desirable in the provincial sections and in the 
arge cities outside Paris.