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ANATOMY. 
  
  
  
the name of Vesalius, though using his figures and 
descriptions. Thomas Vicary, in 1548, is said to be 
the first who wrote in English on A. ;+he published 
The Anglishman’s Treasure, or the True A. of Man’s 
Body. John Ligeus, in 1555, published an anatomi- 
cal treatise in Latin hexameters. Franco (1556), 
Valverda, Columbus, and others, wrote works of great 
merit on A. In 1561, Gabriel Fallopius professed 
it with great distinction at Padua, and made many 
original discoveries. 
In the 17th c., progress was rapid: Hervey, in 
1619, discovered the circulation of the blood, and 
the microscope was employed to detect the structure 
of minute vessels. Aselli, in 1622, discovered and 
demonstrated the existence of the lymph-vessels; 
and his conclusions were supported by the investiga- 
tions of Pecquet, Bartholin, and Olaus Rudbeck. 
The glandular organs were investigated by Wharton, 
while Malpighi, Swammerdam, and (in the following 
c.) the illustrious Ruysch, by the use of injections 
and the aid of the microscope, gave a new impulse to 
research in the minute structures. Eminent names 
in the history of A. are numerous in the 18th c. 
In Ttaly, which still retained its former pre-eminence, 
we find Pacchioni, Valsalva, Morgagni, Santorini, 
Mascagni, and Cotunni; in France, Winslow, 
D’Aubenton, Lieutaud, Vieq d’Azyr, and Bichit, 
the founder of General A.; in Germany, the accom- 
plished Haller and Meckel prepared the way for 
greater achievements in the 19th c.; in Great 
Britain, Cowper, Cheselden, Hunter, Cruikshank, 
Monro, and Charles Bell contributed to the pro- 
gress of the science; while Holland was worthily 
represented by Boerhaave, Albinus, Camper, Sandi- 
fort, and Bonn. On the boundaries of the two 
centuries, we find the names of Sommering, Loder, 
Blumenbach, Hildebrand, Reil, Tiedemann, and 
Seiler ; nearly all connected with practical medicine, 
which was benefited by their studies in A. 
The necessity of a union of theory and practice 
has led to that zealous study of PATHOLOGICAL A. 
(the dissection and study of structures as modified by 
diseases) which has recently prevailed. The origin 
of this branch of A. may be traced back to ancient 
times in Egypt, where post-mortem examinations 
were sometimes made to discover the seat of disease 
and cause of death. In the medical writings of the 
Greeks, some anatomico-pathological observations 
are found. During the general revival of science in 
the 16th c.. many notices of pathological A. occur. 
In 1507, Benevieni of Florence wrote the first book 
on this branch of science; and Bonet, in 1679, 
published his compilation of numerous observations. 
Still, these were only fragmentary indications of a 
possible science, and the facts stated were often very 
erroneously interpreted. Morgagni (1767), who 
must be regarded as the true founder of Pathological 
A., was worthily followed by Lieutaud, Sandifort, 
Hunter, Baillie, and others. Meckel the Younger, 
in Germany, in his study of malformations, &c., paid 
little or no attention to practical applications of 
the science. The recent change of direction given 
to the study of Pathological A., which is now 
properly regarded as a means towards practical 
improvements in medicine, must be ascribed to 
Bichit and the pupils of Broussais, among whom 
may be mentioned the names of Laennec, Cruveilhier, 
Louis, Andral, Lobstein, Lebert, Virchow, Bennett, 
&e. In London and other large towns there are 
societies devoted specially to the investigation of 
pathology. 
CoMPARATIVE A. has always preceded anthro- 
potomy, or dissection of the human subject, but was 
first treated systematically as a distinct science by 
Cuvier and his pupil Meckel the Younger. The 
system proposed by the latter was, unfortunately, 
  
never completed. Blumenbach, Tiedemann, Home, 
Blainville, Geoffroy St Hilaire, Carus, Oken, Goethe, 
the Geerman poet, Richard Owen, John Goodsir, and 
Huxley, must be named as eminent contributors to 
this branch of science ; while, in late years, zootomy 
and comparative A. have been studied, with an 
especial reference to physiology, by Miiller, Wagner, 
Siebold, Bowman, Todd, and Allan Thomson, 
A. For ARrtIsts is studied with reference to the 
effects produced by internal structure on the 
external form, and describes the organs, especially 
the muscles and tendons, not only in a state of 
rest, but also as modified by passion, action, and 
posture. Consequently, observation of the nude 
living form is required in this branch of study, 
which has been treated of by Frrard and Genga 
(1691); and in modern times, by Lavater (1790), 
Camper (1792), Charles Bell (1806), Salvage (1812), 
Mascagni (1816), Koeck (1822), Gardy (1831), Fischer 
(1838), Salomon and Aulich (1841), Berger (1842), 
Seiler and Giinther (1850), &ec. 
PrAcTICAL A. includes Dissection (q. v.) and the 
making of Preparations. Preparation consists in 
dividing parts or organs, so that their respective forms 
and positions may be clearly shewn. Organs or parts 
thus treated are styled Anatomical Preparations of 
bones, muscles, vessels, nerves, &e. For example, 
a bone-preparation is made by clearing away all 
muscular and other adhesions; the whole structure 
of the bones, thus prepared and bleached, when 
connected by wires in its natural order, forms an 
artificial skeleton. 
For preparations of parts containing vessels with 
minute ramifications, injections are employed. Some 
coloured fluid which has the property of gradually 
becoming solid, is gently injected into the arteries 
or other vessels by means of a syringe. Formerly, 
materials which required a certain degree of warmth 
to preserve their fluidity were used; but as these 
were attended with inconvenience, a great improve- 
ment was made by Shaw and Weber, who intro- 
duced the use of linseed-oil and turpentine, which, 
when mixed with certain metallic compounds in 
due proportions, form a fluid which, after a time, 
becomes solid in ordinary temperatures. Quick- 
silver and coloured lime-water are also used for 
injection of the finer vessels. Preparations are either 
dried and varnished or preserved in spirit. 
A series of such specimens, arranged in proper 
order, forms an Anatomical Museum. The valuable 
collections made by Ruysch, Rau, TLoder, Walter, 
John and William Hunter, Meckel, Sommering, and 
Dupuytren, are all now public property. There 
is also a splendid collection in the university of 
Edinburgh, collected and prepared for the most part 
by John Goodsir. The College of Surgeons of 
Edinburgh also possesses a very valuable museum 
of pathological preparations. As it is impossible to 
preserve thus all parts in their integrity for any 
great length of time, artificial copies in wood, ivory, 
and wax have been made with great exactitude, 
especially in Florence ; and recently Anzou in Paris 
has employed papier-mdché for the same purpose. 
But, apart from dissections and preparations of 
the natural organs, the most general and available 
assistance in the study of A. is found in anatomical 
engravings and plates on wood and copper. This 
assistance was known in ancient times. Aristotle 
affixed to his works on A. some snatomical drawings, 
which have been lost. In the 16th c., the greatest 
artists—Leonardo da Vinei, Michael Angelo, Raphael, 
Titian, and Diirer—gave their aid in designing 
anatomical figures ; but few of their works, in this 
department of art, have been preserved. Lately, 
lithography has been employed. Among the numer- 
ous illustrations of A. which we now possess, the 
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